The Wellcome Museum of the History of Medicine : a part of the Science Museum / [text by Brian Bracegirdle].

  • Bracegirdle, Brian
Date:
[1981]
Catalogue details

Licence: In copyright

Credit: The Wellcome Museum of the History of Medicine : a part of the Science Museum / [text by Brian Bracegirdle]. Source: Wellcome Collection.

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    During the nineteenth century, concepts of illness, methods of treatment and knowledge of public health altered out of all recognition. To a large extent this progress came about because natural science was pro- moted and applied during the century as never before. Until the 1830s progress in the sciences was in the hands of only a few workers, who tended to investigate whatever took their fancy. After about 1830 the evolution of the full- time 'pure' scientist, often working in a university, established the pursuit of scientific knowledge as a definite career. Eventually, many worked on research and much was discovered. However, in the first decades of the century develop- ments in hospital medicine, centred on Paris, were important, as we see at the beginning of the part of the gallery devoted to the nineteenth century. The new big hospitals allowed thousands of patients to be examined and Laennec's introduction in 1816 of the stethoscope, of which an original example is on show, made possible a new concept of diseases of the chest. Instead of the whole body being thought to be involved in all diseases, a particular organ could now be seen to be the site of the trouble. Other instruments were invented and applied as the century went by, especially in German medicine; thermometers and endoscopes illustrate the kind of progress being made. By the end of the century work in physiology had provided a more precise understanding of the body's functions as workers applied new and improved techniques. The Helmholtz pendulum (our example is dated 1901) allowed the speed of the nerve impulse to be accurately measured. Some indication of the delicacy of the experiments devised is shown in the reconstruction of A. V. Hill's apparatus to measure the amount of heat produced when a muscle contracts. Another important exhibit is Henry Dale's kymograph linked to a double perfusion pump and oxygenator to enable him to study isolated organs. This is a mechanical life-support system, the precursor of the modern heart-lung machine. Throughout the century work on the nature of the body's tissues progressed. In 1826 J. J. Lister (father of the famous Lord Lister) discovered how to make a microscope with lenses which showed histological detail properly for the first time in history: this instrument is on display. By about 1840 Schwann had shown that all living structures were composed of cells and in 1854 Virchow proved that all cells develop only from other cells. By 1885 Abbe's work had developed the microscope to a peak of perfection, and preparation of tissues for examination had also developed apace. Examples of the key instruments concerned in this work are on display, as are photographs made through contemporary microscopes, showing what was to be seen. Possibly the most important advance in medical science in the nineteenth century was the development of the germ theory of disease. Work on parasitic worms found in meat preceded knowledge of bacteria. This rested on the work of Pasteur developed by Koch. Two microscopes and other apparatus actually used by Pasteur can be seen in this part of the gallery. The importance of his later work in developing a vaccine effective against rabies made him one of the most respected figures of the century. A pipette used by him to remove saliva from an infected dog is on display. The work of Joseph (later Lord) Lister in applying Pasteur's discoveries to surgery, using carbolic acid to create ■ antiseptic conditions, is well known. Many of the sherry glasses and other utensils used by Lister 20. Edward Jenner's vaccine points, ivory, and piece of horn from the cow used by him in his experiments, early nineteenth century, England (case 1.34). in his work on germs are on display to illustrate the scientific background to the understanding and control of bacteria as disease-producing organisms. Photographs of various micro-organisms including those from muscle and from blood, are on display. They were made using microscopes and preparations of the time to give some idea of what could be seen in the nineteenth century. Close to the orthopaedic model in its island case, is the section dealing with individual and public health. Individual drug treatment with a wide range of proprietary medicines is described. Homoeopathic and conventional medicine chests are on display together with such typical products as Holloway's ointment jars (note the high price); the preoccupation with opium-based medicines can clearly be seen. The belief in miasmas as a source of infection is discussed. Nineteenth-century techniques of contra- ception are illustrated and early condoms are on display. Items related to childbirth and domestic hygiene are included and midwifery and obstetric sets of the period make an interesting comparison with more modern ones seen elsewhere in the gallery. Food warmers and part of the extensive collection of infant feeding bottles are also shown. The anti-cholera kit looks impressive but might not have been very effective. The model lavatory by Jennings of London and the full-size nineteenth-century drain are examples of the increasing attention given to public health later in the century. The development of public health measures was important in preventing disease. Lack of proper sanitation allowed four great cholera epidemics to sweep the world during the century, and the slums of the big cities were ever-threatening reservoirs of diseases such as typhoid. Eventually, legislation was enacted, medical officers of health were appointed, and clean water supplies and proper sanitation were provided. Laws controlling the purity of food also reduced infection. Some occupational
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