Encyclopaedia Americana: a popular dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, history, politics and biography, brought down to the present time : including a copious collection of original articles in American biography : on the basis of the seventh edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon (Volume 8).
- Date:
- 1830-33
Licence: Public Domain Mark
Credit: Encyclopaedia Americana: a popular dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, history, politics and biography, brought down to the present time : including a copious collection of original articles in American biography : on the basis of the seventh edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon (Volume 8). Source: Wellcome Collection.
Provider: This material has been provided by the National Library of Medicine (U.S.), through the Medical Heritage Library. The original may be consulted at the National Library of Medicine (U.S.)
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![Vatican, and one of those beautiful scenes to be found nowhere but in Rome. Leo X had these logge or arcades built under the direction of the immortal Ra- phael. There are three stories which en- close a court called il Corlile di S. Dama- so. The middle story is the most cele- brated. It is formed by thirteen arches, and the vault of each contains four paint- ings in fresco, representing scenes from the Old Testament, and executed by Giulio Romano, Pterin dal Vaga, Pelle- grino da Modena, Polidoro, and Maturino da Caravaggio, and others, after cartoons prepared by the great Raphael himself. The number of these exquisite pictures is fifty-two; the arches and pilasters are adorned with grotesque paintings, exe- cuted by Giovanni da Udine, so famous in this branch, also under the direction of Raphael. Logic (Aoyoo;, i. e. hiarn/jt]); the science of the laws of thought, and the correct con- nexion of ideas. It is not certain, how- ever, whether the name was derived orig- inally from thought or from language, be- cause both may be designated by \6yos, i. e. reason and word. In German, this science has also been called Denk-Lehre, or Verstandes-Lehre (rule of thinking, or rule of the understanding), because logic strives to represent, in a scientific way, those laws which the understanding is bound to follow in thinking, and with- out the observance of Which, no correct conclusions are possible. Logic is valua- ble, not only as affording rules for the practical use of the understanding, but also as a science preparatory to all other sciences, particularly mental philosophy, as it affords the rules for giving scientific connexion to all knowledge, the laws of thinking determining the character of scientific arrangement. Rut, inasmuch as the laws of logic can only determine the form of our knowledge, but can by no means teach us bow to obtain the ma- terials of knowledge, and gain a clear in- sight into things (which is the business of mental philosophy, properly so called), in so far logic has been, of late, separated from intellectual philosophy. Rut if, as is not unfrequently done, all sciences are divided into the historical (those which proceed from experience, as history, natural philosophy, medicine, &c.) and the philosophical (the subjects of which do not fall within the domain of expe- rience), logic is a philosophical science, because the laws of the connexion of thoughts and ideas are founded in reason itself, and not in experience, and the sub- VOL. VIII. 5 jects of logic are, therefore, capable of a demonstrative certainty beyond those of any other philosophical science. Logic has not unfrequently been overvalued, particularly by the ancient philosophers. It should be always kept in mind, that the most systematic order, alone, does nor. render assertions truth. The province of logic has been enlarged or restricted by different philosophers. Among the ancients, logic was made to include the deeper philosophical investigation of the general characteristics of truth, orthe essen- tial conditions of the truth of our knowl- edge, which some modern philosophers have referred to metaphysics. Logic may be divided into the pure and the applied; the former treats of the general laws and operations of thought (conceiving, judg- ing, concluding), and their products (notion, judgment, conclusion). Applied logic treats of thought under particular and special relations, which are to be taken into consideration in applying the general laws of thought, viz. the connex- ions of thought with other operations of the mind, and the impediments and limi- tations which it thereby experiences, as, also, the means of counteracting them. For the first scientific treatment of logic, we are to look to the Greeks. Zeno of Elea is called the father of logic and dia- lectics ; but it was then treated with par- ticular reference to the art of disputation, and soon degenerated into the minister of sophistry. The sophists and the Mega- rean school (founded by Euclid of Mega- ra) greatly developed this art. The latter, therefore, became known under the name of the heuristic or dialectic school, and is famous for the invention of several soph- isms. The first attempt to represent the forms of thinking, in abstracto, on a wide scale, and in a purely scientific manner, was made by Aristotle. His logical writ- ings were called, by later ages, organon, and for almost two thousand years after him maintained authority in the schools of the philosophers. His investigations were directed, at the same time, to the cri- terion of truth, in which path Epicurus, Zeno, the founder of the stoic school, Chrysippus and others followed him. Logic, or dialectics, enjoyed great esteem in later times, particularly in the middle ages, so that it was considered almost as the spring of all science, and was taught as a liberal art from the eighth century. The triumph of logic was the scholastic philosophy (which was but a new form of the ancient sophistry); and theology, particularly, became filled with verbal](https://iiif.wellcomecollection.org/image/b21136774_0055.jp2/full/800%2C/0/default.jpg)
